🏆 Award Ceremony · 15 May 2026 · Learn more 🏆

Techniques and Cross-Topic Methods

Some mathematical tools frequently appear in olympiad problems but do not belong to a single area such as algebra, geometry, or number theory.

They are often proof techniques, general combinatorial ideas, or small theoretical results that can be applied in many different contexts.

Below are some of the most important topics.

Fundamental topics

  • Proof techniques
  • Combinatorial tools
  • Other useful tools

Mathematical induction

Proof by induction is a technique frequently used to prove properties depending on a natural number $n$.

The method consists of two steps:

  1. verify the property for an initial value
  2. prove that if it holds for $n$, then it also holds for $n+1$

This allows one to conclude that the property holds for all subsequent values.

Infinite descent

Infinite descent, introduced by Fermat, is a proof technique by contradiction.

The idea is to show that from a solution of a problem one can construct a smaller solution, and then another even smaller one, and so on.
This leads to a contradiction, because among natural numbers there cannot exist an infinite strictly decreasing sequence.

Vieta jumping

Vieta jumping is a technique mainly used in number theory problems involving quadratic equations in two integer variables.

It relies on the observation that, if a solution of the equation exists, it is often possible to construct another smaller one using the relationships between the roots.

Pigeonhole principle

The pigeonhole principle states that if more objects are distributed than containers, then at least one container must contain more than one object.

Despite its simplicity, this principle can be used to prove very surprising results.

Colorings

Many olympiad problems use colorings of objects (points, vertices, cells of a grid…) to study possible or impossible configurations.

Colorings are often used together with combinatorial arguments or graph theory.

Elements of graph theory

Graph theory studies structures made of vertices connected by edges.

Even a few basic concepts (such as paths, cycles, or complete graphs) can be very useful for modeling and solving olympiad problems.

Pick’s theorem

Pick’s theorem concerns polygons whose vertices lie on integer-coordinate points of the plane.

It allows one to compute the area of such a polygon using a simple formula involving:

  • the number of integer points inside the polygon
  • the number of integer points on the boundary

Solid geometry

Although it appears less frequently than plane geometry, solid geometry can appear in some olympiad competitions.

The main tools involve:

  • volumes and surface areas of solids
  • plane sections
  • relationships between segments and angles in space

Where to start preparing

Many of the topics in this section are not part of standard school curricula, but they appear very frequently in mathematics competitions.

Unlike other areas (such as algebra or number theory), there is no precise order in which to study them: they are techniques and ideas that arise in many different contexts.

Tip

For this reason it is useful to know as many of them as possible and learn to recognize when they can be applied to a problem.

Proof techniques

For proof techniques we recommend the following volume from the U Math series:

Pigeonhole principle

For the pigeonhole principle, a very interesting article that we recommend is the following:

đź“ť http://www.mathisintheair.org/wp/2021/03/principio-dei-cassetti-e-principio-di-inclusione-esclusione-piccioni-in-gabbia-e-problemi-matematici-gare-di-matematica-parte-3/

Discrete mathematics

For graph theory and coloring problems we recommend the volume:

Solid geometry

To study geometry in space:

In the Resources section of the website you can find further information about the U Math series and other useful materials for training.